Canadian History: The Interwar Period
From Robert Borden to William Lyon Mackenzie King's Third Term
1.) Robert Borden (Conservative) (1911 -1920)
Robert Borden served as the Prime Minister of Canada from 1911 to 1920, leading the country through significant challenges, most notably World War I. His tenure was marked by a series of major events and policies that had lasting impacts on Canada.
Election and Early Policies (1911-1914)
Borden came to power by defeating Sir Wilfrid Laurier in the 1911 election. His victory was largely due to opposition to Laurier's proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States, which many Canadians feared would lead to excessive American influence in Canadian economic affairs.
Key early events:
Naval Services Act (1910): Borden inherited this issue from Laurier, who had established a small Canadian navy. Borden sought to expand this force, reflecting his commitment to strengthening Canada's military presence.
Rejection of Reciprocity: Upon taking office, Borden nullified the reciprocity agreement with the U.S., focusing instead on strengthening economic ties within the British Empire.
World War I (1914-1918)
The outbreak of World War I was a defining period of Borden's prime ministership. His leadership during the war was characterized by significant military, economic, and political developments.
Key wartime events:
Conscription Crisis (1917): As World War I progressed, Canada faced a shortage of volunteers for military service. Borden introduced the Military Service Act in 1917, which mandated conscription. This was highly controversial, especially in Quebec, leading to significant political and social strife.
Union Government: To address the divisive issue of conscription and rally broader support for the war effort, Borden formed a Union Government in 1917, which included Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals. This coalition won the 1917 election with a strong majority but deepened the linguistic and regional divisions.
Income Tax Introduction (1917): To finance the war, Borden introduced a "temporary" income tax that remains in effect to this day.
Women's Suffrage: Borden's government extended the vote to women in 1918, initially to those related to servicemen, partly to garner support for the conscription policy.
Post-War and Legacy (1918-1920)
The end of World War I brought new challenges, including the reintegration of returning soldiers, the 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic, and rising labor unrest.
Key post-war events:
Paris Peace Conference (1919): Borden represented Canada at the Paris Peace Conference, asserting Canada's status as an autonomous dominion. This was a significant step in Canada's path toward greater independence from Britain.
Winnipeg General Strike (1919): One of Canada's most significant strikes occurred in 1919, reflecting widespread economic and social unrest following the war. Borden's government responded firmly, which led to the end of the strike but also criticisms of excessive force.
Retirement: Borden retired in 1920, leaving a legacy of increased Canadian autonomy and involvement on the world stage, but also of domestic policies that had at times deepened regional and linguistic divisions.
Borden's tenure as Prime Minister was one of the most consequential in Canadian history, significantly influenced by the circumstances of World War I. His leadership saw the expansion of federal powers, the emergence of Canada as a more independent entity within the British Empire, and substantial social changes, including steps toward expanded civil rights with the introduction of women's suffrage.
2.) Arthur Meighen (First Term 1920-21)
Arthur Meighen's first term in office as Prime Minister of Canada was relatively brief, as he served two separate terms with significant gaps in between. Here's an overview of his first term and major events in Canada at the time:
Prime Ministerial Term:
Arthur Meighen first became Prime Minister of Canada on July 10, 1920, following the resignation of Sir Robert Borden.
Meighen's first term lasted until December 29, 1921, when his government was defeated in the general election.
Major Events in Canada:
Post-World War I Reconstruction: Canada faced the challenges of post-war reconstruction following World War I, including demobilization of soldiers, economic transition, and social adjustments.
Economic Recession: Canada experienced an economic recession in the early 1920s, exacerbated by the post-war economic downturn and reduced demand for wartime goods and services.
Labour Unrest: The early 1920s saw significant labour unrest in Canada, including strikes and industrial disputes in various industries, as workers demanded better wages and working conditions.
Emergence of the Progressive Movement: The early 1920s saw the emergence of the Progressive movement in Canadian politics, advocating for social and economic reforms, including measures to address poverty, inequality, and political corruption.
Formation of the Farmers' Party: The United Farmers of Alberta (UFA) formed a provincial government in Alberta in 1921, marking the rise of agrarian political movements in Western Canada.
Women's Suffrage: Women gained the right to vote in federal elections in Canada in 1918, and the first federal election in which women could vote was held in 1921, during Meighen's first term as Prime Minister.
Constitutional Development: Canada's constitutional development continued during Meighen's first term, with discussions and debates about the distribution of powers between the federal government and the provinces.
Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations: Canada participated in the negotiations of the Treaty of Versailles and became a founding member of the League of Nations, reflecting its growing role in international affairs.
These are some of the major events and developments in Canada during Arthur Meighen's first term as Prime Minister, reflecting the country's transition from the aftermath of World War I to the challenges and opportunities of the early 1920s.
3.) William Lyon Mackenzie King (1921 - 1926)
William Lyon Mackenzie King served as the Prime Minister of Canada for three non-consecutive terms, with his first term spanning from 1921 to 1926. King, a skilled political tactician, led the Liberal Party during a period marked by significant social and economic changes in the post-World War I era.
1921 Election
King's first term began following the 1921 federal election, where the Liberal Party capitalized on the post-war desire for new leadership and economic reforms. This election was notable for introducing the newly formed Progressive Party, which gained significant support in the West and Ontario, advocating for agrarian interests.
Domestic Policies and Issues
Economy and Trade: King's government focused on economic recovery following World War I. His administration worked on stabilizing Canada's economy, which was transitioning from a wartime to a peacetime footing. This involved addressing issues such as national debt, inflation, and the shift of labor forces.
Immigration Policy: Reflecting the sentiments of the era, King's government implemented more restrictive immigration policies, influenced by the economic downturn of the early 1920s and the prevailing nativist attitudes.
Labour Relations: The period saw significant labor unrest, and King, who had a background in labor issues, advocated for conciliation and arbitration between workers and employers. This approach led to the establishment of more structured labor relations and the passage of the Railway Labour Disputes Act in 1925.
Social Reform
Old Age Pensions: King's government introduced the Old Age Pension Act in 1926, which was a significant step towards the establishment of a social safety net in Canada.
Veterans' Affairs: Continuing efforts to address the needs of veterans were a priority, with improvements in programs related to health care, retraining, and financial benefits for World War I veterans.
Foreign Affairs and National Identity
Chanak Crisis (1922): One of King's first major challenges in foreign affairs was the Chanak Crisis, where he resisted British pressure to commit Canadian troops to a potential conflict in Turkey. His stand was seen as asserting Canada's autonomy in foreign policy decisions.
Imperial Conference of 1923 and 1926: King participated in these conferences, which were instrumental in defining the dominion status and autonomy of Britain's possessions, including Canada. The 1926 Balfour Declaration, acknowledging the full autonomy of the dominions, was a significant milestone in Canada’s path to independence.
Political Challenges
Customs Scandal (1926): King's government was rocked by a scandal involving accusations of corruption and mismanagement in the Customs Department. This scandal eventually led to the King-Byng Affair.
King-Byng Affair (1926): This constitutional crisis occurred when Governor General Lord Byng refused King's request to dissolve Parliament and call an election after his government lost a vote of confidence. King resigned, but the subsequent Conservative government led by Arthur Meighen fell shortly after. King then returned to power after winning the ensuing election, further solidifying his party's position and defining the role of the Governor General in Canada's political system.
Conclusion
King's first term was pivotal in shaping modern Canadian policies in welfare, labor relations, and national independence. His ability to navigate through economic challenges, social issues, and political scandals helped to stabilize and gradually transform Canada during the turbulent interwar period. His leadership during this time laid the groundwork for many of the social and economic policies that would define Canadian governance throughout the 20th century.
4.) Arthur Meighen (Second Term (June - Sep 1926)
Arthur Meighen's second term as Prime Minister of Canada was characterized by political instability and challenges, as well as significant events both domestically and internationally. Here's an overview:
Prime Ministerial Term:
Meighen's second term began on June 29, 1926, following the resignation of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King.
However, Meighen's government was short-lived and faced difficulties maintaining support in Parliament.
His second term ended on September 25, 1926, when his government was defeated in a vote of confidence.
Major Events During Meighen's Second Term:
King-Byng Affair: One of the most significant events during Meighen's second term was the King-Byng Affair. Following the 1925 federal election, no party won a majority of seats in Parliament. Prime Minister Mackenzie King's Liberal government remained in power with the support of Progressive Party MPs. When the government faced a vote of confidence in 1926, Governor General Lord Byng refused Mackenzie King's request to dissolve Parliament and call a new election. Instead, he invited Arthur Meighen to form a government. Meighen's government subsequently faced a vote of confidence and was defeated, leading to the dissolution of Parliament and the calling of a new election.
1926 Federal Election: In the 1926 federal election that followed the King-Byng Affair, neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives won a majority of seats. Mackenzie King's Liberals returned to power with a minority government, while Meighen's Conservatives remained in opposition.
Economic Challenges: Canada faced economic challenges during Meighen's second term, including the lingering effects of the post-World War I recession and ongoing concerns about unemployment and economic instability.
Labour Unrest: Labour unrest continued to be a significant issue during Meighen's second term, with strikes and industrial disputes occurring in various industries across the country.
International Relations: Canada's international relations were influenced by events such as the ongoing negotiations for the Treaty of Locarno and efforts to address international disarmament and security issues.
Overall, Arthur Meighen's second term as Prime Minister was marked by political turmoil, economic challenges, and ongoing debates about Canada's place in the world. Despite his efforts to address these issues, his government ultimately proved unable to maintain support in Parliament, leading to its defeat and the return of Mackenzie King's Liberals to power.
5.) William Lyon Mackenzie King’s Second Term (1926 - 1930)
William Lyon Mackenzie King's second term as Prime Minister of Canada spanned from 1926 to 1930. This period was characterized by political recovery and stability after the King-Byng Affair, and the onset of economic difficulties as the decade ended with the beginning of the Great Depression. King’s leadership during this term continued to shape Canada’s domestic and foreign policies.
Political Context and Election
1926 Election: Following the King-Byng Affair, King capitalized on the issue of Canadian autonomy from Britain, which resonated with voters. His Liberal Party won the election, allowing him to form a government again. This victory was seen as a mandate for his views on the role of the Governor-General and Canada’s independence.
Economic Policies and Challenges
Economic Prosperity and Later Hardship: Initially, Canada enjoyed economic prosperity, but this changed drastically as the term progressed. The stock market crash of 1929 heralded the beginning of the Great Depression, which would dominate the end of his term and his subsequent leadership when he returned to office in the 1930s.
Response to the Great Depression: King's initial response to the Depression was cautious. He believed that the economy would recover on its own and was hesitant to involve the federal government in direct economic relief, a stance that later attracted criticism.
Social Policies
Immigration: Continuing from his first term, King’s government maintained restrictive immigration policies, particularly in response to the economic downturn, tightening entry conditions and reducing the number of immigrants.
Health and Welfare: The government made further advancements in social welfare, although many significant social safety net programs would not be implemented until the 1930s and 1940s.
Foreign Affairs
Continued Pursuit of Autonomy: King continued to advocate for and solidify Canada's legislative independence from the United Kingdom, a process that culminated in the Statute of Westminster in 1931 (passed after his term). His administration worked on defining Canada's role on the international stage as a member of the League of Nations and in the Commonwealth.
Imperial Conferences: King participated in Imperial Conferences, pushing for recognition of Canada’s independent status in foreign policy and defense matters.
Cultural and Regional Development
Support for National Projects: King's government supported infrastructure and national projects that aimed to boost economic growth and connectivity across the country, including the further development of the national railway systems.
Conclusion of the Second Term
King’s second term ended with the election of 1930, where he was defeated by R.B. Bennett amid the escalating economic crisis. King's reluctance to intervene aggressively in the economy in response to the Great Depression was a key factor in his electoral defeat. However, his work during this term set the stage for later developments in Canadian autonomy and social policy. King's political acumen ensured that despite the immediate challenges, the foundations were laid for a more independent and socially aware Canada. His approach to governance during this term reflected a cautious optimism that was ultimately overtaken by global economic events beyond his control.
6.) Richard Bedford Bennet (1930-1935)
Richard Bedford Bennett, known as R.B. Bennett, was the 11th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from 1930 to 1935 during the height of the Great Depression. Born in 1870 in Hopewell Hill, New Brunswick, Bennett was a millionaire lawyer and businessman before entering politics. His tenure as Prime Minister is often remembered for his attempts to combat the economic hardships of the Depression, which had significant social and political implications.
Rise to Power
1930 Election: Bennett won the 1930 federal election by promising aggressive action against the economic downturn that Canada was facing. His rhetoric and promises of vigorous leadership contrasted with the perceived inaction of his predecessor, Mackenzie King.
Key Policies and Actions
Economic Measures: Faced with the Great Depression, Bennett initially adopted classical economic approaches, including raising tariffs to protect Canadian industries—a policy known as the Imperial Preference, which aimed to enhance trade within the British Empire. However, as the Depression worsened, these measures proved largely ineffective at reversing economic decline.
Relief Efforts: Bennett's government created public works programs intended to reduce unemployment, which included constructing buildings, roads, and other infrastructure projects. Despite these efforts, unemployment remained devastatingly high.
Bennett’s New Deal: In 1935, in a dramatic shift reminiscent of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, Bennett proposed a series of reforms aimed at overhauling the economy and providing more direct aid to Canadians. These proposed measures included minimum wage laws, unemployment insurance, health insurance, and agricultural support programs. However, many of these proposals were criticized as too little, too late, and some were ruled unconstitutional by the courts.
Challenges and Controversies
On-to-Ottawa Trek (1935): One of the most notable events during Bennett's term was the On-to-Ottawa Trek, where a group of unemployed men protested the poor conditions in federal relief camps. The trek ended in Regina with the Regina Riot, a confrontation between the protesters and the RCMP, which resulted in the death of a police officer and several injuries.
Handling of the Great Depression: Bennett's initial response to the Depression was viewed as inadequate by many Canadians, and his later attempts at reform failed to gain the necessary political support. His policies were seen as too disconnected from the harsh realities many Canadians faced.
Foreign Affairs
Statute of Westminster (1931): During Bennett’s term, the Statute of Westminster was enacted, affirming the legislative independence of the self-governing dominions of the British Empire, including Canada. This was a pivotal moment in the constitutional development of the Commonwealth.
Personal Style and Legacy
Personal Wealth and Style: Bennett was known for his austere and formal personal style, which sometimes alienated him from the electorate. Despite his wealth, he struggled to connect with the hardships experienced by ordinary Canadians during the Depression.
Post-Premiership Life: After losing the 1935 election to Mackenzie King, Bennett moved to England in 1939, where he became Viscount Bennett. He died in 1947.
Legacy
Bennett's legacy is mixed. He is often criticized for his handling of the Depression but is also credited with laying the groundwork for future social welfare programs that were implemented after his time in office. His tenure illustrates the challenges of leadership during a period of extreme economic crisis and the shift towards more interventionist government policies in response to public need.
7.) William Lyon Mackenzie King (Third Term) (1935 - 1948)
William Lyon Mackenzie King's third term as Prime Minister of Canada spanned a long and critical period from 1935 to 1948, making him the longest-serving prime minister in Canadian history. This term was marked by significant events, including the latter years of the Great Depression, World War II, and the beginning of the post-war recovery and modernization of Canada.
Response to the Great Depression
Continuation of the New Deal: King continued and expanded the social welfare measures initiated by R.B. Bennett, though in a more systematic and federally coordinated fashion. This included establishing unemployment insurance in 1940 and family allowances in 1944, significant steps toward the social safety net Canada enjoys today.
Economic Stabilization: King's government worked to stabilize and then boost Canada's economy through increased trade within the British Empire and with the United States, particularly through the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan and other wartime production.
World War II (1939-1945)
Neutrality to Engagement: Initially, King was hesitant to involve Canada in another global conflict. However, following the UK's declaration of war on Germany, Canada independently declared war on September 10, 1939, reflecting its autonomous foreign policy.
Home Front and Economy: Under King, Canada's economy transformed to support the war effort, with industries geared towards military production. This included the mobilization of resources and labor and the internment of Japanese Canadians, a controversial action for which the Canadian government later apologized.
Conscription Crisis of 1944: Similar to World War I, the issue of conscription surfaced again. King managed the crisis under the policy of "conscription if necessary, but not necessarily conscription," which aimed to balance the demand for troops with domestic opposition, particularly strong in Quebec.
Post-War Period
Establishment of International Relations: King was instrumental in positioning Canada on the international stage. Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945, and King was involved in the drafting of the UN Charter.
G.I. Bill Canadian Version: Post-war, his government passed the Veterans Charter, providing unprecedented benefits for returning veterans, including educational grants, loans for home purchases, and other supports.
Immigration and Citizenship: In 1947, King's government enacted the Canadian Citizenship Act, establishing Canadian citizenship as distinct from British subject status. His administration also began to liberalize the strict immigration policies that had been in place since the 1920s.
Economic and Social Policies
Social Welfare Expansion: The introduction of family allowances in 1944 marked the beginning of universal social programs in Canada.
Industrial and Economic Development: The post-war period under King witnessed significant industrial growth and the beginning of Canada’s mid-century economic boom.
Conclusion of King’s Third Term
King retired in 1948, leaving behind a legacy of having led Canada through the economic recovery of the Great Depression and the significant challenges of World War II. His policies laid the groundwork for the welfare state and established Canada as an independent and influential middle power on the world stage. His leadership style, marked by pragmatism and political acuity, helped navigate Canada through some of the most turbulent times in modern history.
8.) Canada in the Interbellum Period
During the interbellum period, the years between the end of World War I in 1918 and the start of World War II in 1939, Canadian culture experienced significant transformation and development. This era was marked by shifts in social attitudes, artistic expression, and national identity, influenced by both global events and domestic changes.
Social and Economic Context
The interbellum period in Canada was characterized by recovery from World War I, economic fluctuations culminating in the Great Depression, and significant social changes. These included the increasing urbanization of the Canadian population, technological advancements, and changes in the labor market that affected daily life and cultural expressions.
Art and Literature
Group of Seven: This period saw the rise of the Group of Seven, a collective of painters who significantly influenced Canadian art. They focused on capturing the Canadian landscape in a bold, modern style that differed from the European traditions, emphasizing the unique nature of Canadian wilderness and contributing to a growing sense of national identity through visual arts.
Canadian Authors Meet: Founded in 1921, this association aimed to encourage Canadian literature and a distinct Canadian voice that was separate from British influences. Writers like Morley Callaghan, Mazo de la Roche, and F.R. Scott emerged during this time, exploring themes that ranged from urban life to the impact of the economic depression on ordinary Canadians.
Music and Radio
Music: Canadian music began to diversify with the influence of American jazz and folk music. The 1920s and 1930s saw the growth of jazz scenes in urban centers like Toronto and Montreal. Canadian musicians like Oscar Peterson began their careers during this time, although Peterson's prominence would come later.
Radio: The introduction and spread of radio had a profound impact on Canadian culture. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) was established in 1936, playing a crucial role in fostering a pan-Canadian culture by disseminating news, entertainment, and cultural programs that reflected and promoted Canadian values and identity.
Film and Theatre
Film: The Canadian film industry was still in its infancy, but the 1930s saw the establishment of the National Film Board of Canada (1939), set up to produce and distribute Canadian documentary films. This would become a vital institution for the development of film in Canada.
Theatre: Canadian theatre began to professionalize, with the establishment of companies like the Dominion Drama Festival in 1933, which encouraged amateur theatre and helped develop Canadian talent in the performing arts.
Sports and Leisure
Hockey: Ice hockey continued to be a defining element of Canadian culture, with the National Hockey League (NHL) expanding in the 1920s and 1930s. The introduction of the iconic Toronto Maple Leafs in 1927, who would go on to become a symbol of Canadian sport, highlighted this era.
Public Leisure Activities: With the rise of the middle class, leisure activities became more widespread, including going to the cinema, listening to the radio, and participating in or watching sports.
Impact of the Great Depression
The economic struggles of the Great Depression deeply affected cultural expression, with themes of hardship and resilience permeating literature, music, and other forms of artistic expression. Publicly funded art projects sometimes became sources of employment for artists during the Depression.
Conclusion
The interbellum period in Canada was a time of significant cultural growth and expression, setting the stage for the evolution of a distinct Canadian identity. Through the arts, radio, and sports, Canadians forged a sense of community and national pride that would carry them into the challenges of the upcoming decades.